Contribution of Chicago School to Criminology

Contri justion of lolly naturalise to CriminologyCritically assess the ploughsh are ofthe clams SchoolIn this look for I volition critically assess the contri preciselyion of the lucre school. I will open this essay by briefly describing the lettuce school and the conditions in which it arose. I will then look at the mount within criminology in bewitch the Chicago School emerged I will do this by aspect at the dominating criminological theories that existed before the Chicago school. Furthermore I will discuss the exercise Emile Durkhiem and Ernest Simmel do to the Chicago school theories. I will fol pocket-sized by describeing and criticaly assesing the contri neverthelessions do by some of the give remote Chicago School thinkers, Robert Park, Ernest Burgess, Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay, Edwin Sutherland and Robert Merton. This essay will be think by assessing the contributions of the Chicago School theories.The Chicago school is the name effrontery to the work conducted at the University of Chicago since the 1890s. The Chicago school emerged at a time when the urban center was experiencing speedy well-disposed changes owing to a rapid increase in population as a outcome of undischarged migration. These massive friendly changes ca apply problems regarding ho victimisation, poverty and edition on institutions. These rapid kindly changes enkindleed sociologists they were concerned as to how the city would stay stable in relation to these changes (Faris, 1967, p.5).The Chicago school primary work took a cocksure stance besides, sociologists were more foc apply on friendly povisitivism. This favorable positivity I will demonstrate in social structural theories by Robert Park, Ernest Burgress, Robert Merton, Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay. Following world contend two some sociologists at the school employed a unalike form of enquiry to the foregoing positivist approach. These sociologistss applied an interactionist form of enqui ry to study the social world this was called symbolic interactionism strongly influenced by the work of Ernest Simmel. This intractionist form of inquiry I will demonstrate in the work of Edwin Sutherland.In companionship to reckon the contributions made by the Chicago school, we motivating to understand the context in which the Chicago school emerged. The dominant theories in Criminology preceding the Chicago school were classical criminological and positivist theories of horror.The classical school of criminology dates defend to the enlightenment in the former(a) 18th century. Philosophers Jeremy Bentham and Cesare Beccaria, focused their interest on the organization of poisonous justice and penology, they conjureed that umbrage is a ware of human nature and rational humans possess free will, because have the susceptibility to control their actions. (Carrabine et al, 2004, chap. 3)This status emerged as an alternative to the older barbaric dodge of capital penalty and was concerned with generating a shepherds crook justice system which was more reasonable. This supposition was non concerned with the unmarried causes of crime but instead focused on the law enforcement and well-grounded procedure. Classical criminologists believe that laws are constructed to demonstrate that non- venomous deportment is in volumes ego interests because, according to Jeremy Bentham, it corresponds to his hedonistic utilitarian principle, the greatest good for the greatest issuance (Bentham,1789).Beccaria suggests that crime is a result of incompetent laws and had nothing to do with bad individuals. Beccarias famous book On offensive activity and Punishment, exserted a unexampled purview based on justice, his notions became the foundations of the current shepherds crook justice system (Beccaria, 1764, p.8-19).Early positivist theories of crime are deterministic as they dis let the naotin of free will. This deterministic approach uses emprical reas urch methods. This perspective proposes that crime is a core of biological, psychological and enviromental determents (Ceurabine et al, 2004, chap. 3). This is in contrast to the classical approach, which focuses on legal issues and cake of crime. Positivist criminologists alleged that the causes and effects of sinful behaviour are without delay observable this view was shared by Cesare Lombroso. Lombroso did not believe in the notion of free will, he believed that vicious behaviour was inherited. Lombroso suggested that a criminal type exists, criminals are physiologically different to non criminals and these criminals display observable physiologic signs and deformities. Lombroso conducted research on criminals to go on observable evidence (Macionis and Plummer, 2005, p.442).Both of these theories offer interesting explanations of crime and have contributed to the turn outment of criminology today. The criminal justice system might not exist without the work of Beccaria an d perhaps capital punishment might still be in use presently. The work of earliest positivist criminologists have contributed to criminology by suggesting that crime is not necessarily a matter of free will but could in fact be a result of determining external factors. The positivist tradition was similarly employed by Emile Durkhiem. The Chicago school was highly influenced by Durkhiems work and his ideas contributed to the development of some of their theories. The Chicago Schools early work employed a social positivist tradition as they believed that crime was not a matter of free will but was determined by social factors.Emile Durkhiem was provoke in social positivism his theories focused macro sociological issues. Durkhiem looked at societies as a self-coloured and believed that thither were laws that govern and control our behaviour. Durkhiem suggested that a certain degree of crime and deviance was necessary for a healthy society. He suggested that individuals are influen ced by different factors and may not share the same set these contradictory values shtup cause deviate behaviour (Durkheim, 1895, p.65-73).Durkhiem suggested that too oft crime and deviance threatens the stability of society but too light indicates apathy as well as limiting change and innovation. Durkhiem similarly suggested that deviance has a positive function because exposure to criminal behaviour reinforces societys belief in shared norms and values, when a criminal trial transpires it heightens awareness of societys moral code. Durkhiem believed that society enkindle be viewed similarly to an original organism because both are made up from interdependent parts working together in show for the whole to function he suggested that institutions such as the family, education and theology all contribute to the overall functioning of society. (Macionis and Plummer, 2005 p.444)After world war two, some Chicago school thinkers were influenced by the work of Ernest Simmel, his ideas are innate for understanding the original notions from where symbolic interactionism emerged. Simmel looked at micro sociological issues. Simmel suggested that individuals are not directly observable because of their subjective nature he believed that individuals are self interested and try to gain their needs by victimisation the intend available to them. Simmel looked at individuals actions as he believed that through these actions the social world was constructed he suggests . society is made up of the interactions between and among individuals, and the sociologist should study the patterns and forms of these associations, rather than quest after social laws (Farganis, p. 133). This perspective is different from the deterministic postivist guesss as it belives that individuals have the free will to construt their own reality.Robert Park was an influential figure at the university during the 1920s and 1930s, he was interested in human Ecology. He was highly influenced by the work of Emile Durkhiem and his organic analogy of society. Park saw the city as a top-notch organism and held that social changes were a natural process required by society in order to proceed and effectively evolve. (Park and Burgress, 1921)Robert Park was originate of a new research method called ethnography. This pioneering new method made huge contributions to the modality sociologists/ criminologists studied the social world. Park encouraged his students to go into the city and collect primary data using observational methods. (Macionis and Plummer 2005 p.648-649)Go and sit in the lounges of the luxury hotels and on the doorsteps of the flophouses sit on the silver Coast settees and on the slum shakedown sit in the Orchestra pressure group and the Star and Garter Burlesque. In short, gentlemen, go get the seat of your boxers dirty in real research.(Park, Cited in Prus 1996, pg 103-140)Using a multifariousness of ethnographic methods combined with ecology, Park and Ernest Burgress conducted an bionomical study on the city of Chicago. Together they constructed a diagrammatical representation of the city called the concentric regularise determine. The concentric partition off amaze was the first model to demonstrate how urban land was used. This model showed the location of certain social groups within the city of Chicago (Macionis and Plummer, 2005 p.650-651).This theory revealed that there was a correlation in hold from the central business zone depending on class, it showed that richer slew lived further away from the central business district and poorer people lived near it in the zone of transition. Their theory suggests that areas nearest the core are impacted higher by social changes for example poverty, immagration (Macionis and Plummer, 2005 p.650-651).This theory has contributed to criminology as it shows the correlation between social ecology, class and crime this model demonst pass judgment the impact social changes have on c rime. This was a change to previous explanations of crime as it suggestes that crime is a result of external social factors, and therefore challenges the earlier positivists biological causational theory supported by Lombroso.The centric zone model has been criticised because the theory is context and historically specific. This theory providenot be applied to beg off citys other than Chicago. This theory does not rationalise neo ecology, as high-class housing is near the heart of the city and not on the outskirts. Another criticism is that Park and Burgess used formalised data to produce their theory but they did not have fellowship of how this official data was configured, such as if the data was affected by bias, if individuals were labelled. This theory also did not take into account white sail through crime. Furthermore Park and Burgess theory did not offer explanations as to why crime in the zone of transition was higher in other areas. This theory also did not suggest who committed crimes and why? (Short, 1976)Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay also made contributions to the development of the Chicago school. They were interested in how these social forces influence crime, an area overlooked by the earlier work of Park and Burgess. Shaw and McKay were interested in social disarrangement they suggest that crime is a social disorder resulting from social disarrangement (Lotz, 2005 p. 122-127).Shaw and McKay used Park and Burgesss concentric zone model to investigate the relationships in crime rates and iniquity in the different zones in the city. They also found that areas located near the city centre that were experiencing high disorganization were also experiencing high delinquency. They suggest that Delinquency rates were for these groups highbecause of other aspects of the total situation in which they lived (Shaw and McKay, 1942 pg56).There theory looked at the reasons behind the high levels of disorganization.They advocate that social disorgan ization in urban areas is linked to social changes for example, industrialization, urbanization and immigration. They propose that disorganized areas will develop deviant and criminal values that substitute conventional values. The diagram below demonstrates Shaw and McKays theory (Shaw and McKay, 1942).Shaw and McKay theory is whimsical as it looks at the social aspects causing crime it condones why there are increased amounts of delinquency in certain areas and within certain groups (Shaw and McKay, 1942).There are however criticisms of Shaw and McKays social disorgniztional theory. Critics suggest that not everyone who lives in disorganized communities convey in criminal acts. It also does not explain why criminal acts are still present in areas that are seen to have low disorganization. This theory also overlooks middle class crime as it just focuses on disorganized areas. This theory does not explain how deviant norms and values are transmitted (Lotz, 2005, p. 122-127).Ano ther theory associated with the University of Chicago was the theory of first derivative association developed by Edwin Sutherland 1939. It aim is to understand the process in which deviant behaviour is learnt. This theory explains areas that Shaw and McKay missed. This theory looks at the heathen contagious disease it proposes that criminal behaviour is learned through human interactions and suggests that criminal and deviant norms, attitudes and motives transpire from learned behaviour. He looked deeply at individuals values and cultural perspectives in order to recognize the reasons behind deviant and criminal behaviour. This perspective was influenced by the ideas of Simmel and the idea that researchers needed to look at the underlying causes of criminal behaviour (Cote, 2002, p.125-130).This perspective made contributions to criminology as it suggests that the causes of crime are link to learning deviant or criminal norms. This theory contrasts the positivist theories as it takes an interactionists stance. This theory suggests that criminal behaviour is learned through interaction and can be transmitted through groups of people through communication and a collection of shared attitudes. This theory also can be used to explain white collar crimes (Lotz, 2005 p.127-131).However this theory does not explain why not all individuals who are influenced by criminal or deviant norms dont become deviant or criminals. This theory can be criticized for its lack of empirical evidence due to interpretive form of inquiry. This theory does take into account the pressure society puts on individuals to achieve their goals this pressure is explained by Robert Mertons strain theory (Cote, 2002, p.125-130).Robert Mertons strain theory was derived form Emile Durkhiems theory of anomie. This theory looks at the impact society has on individuals. Merton suggests that there is an inequality in the ability for individuals to achieve their goals. This theory suggests that when individuals cannot acquire the means to achieve their goals this can continue to criminal and deviant behaviour. His theory is broken down into five elements as this diagram demonstrates (Lotz, 2005, p.127-131).Conformity is when individuals accept there are means and goals. unveiling is when there is a lowerion of the means but the individual still desires the goal, this could result in criminal behaviour.Ritualism is not a rejection of the goals but the individual accepts that they cant reach their goals.Retreatism, individuals want to withdraw from society and are not interested in inquiring the means or reaching their goals.Rebellion, these individuals reject the means and goals but do not withdraw from society but rather wants society to change and become active force of change.This theory has contributed to criminolgy as it focuses on how strain society puts on people, to obtain the means in order to achieve their goals, these pressures Merton calls anomie. This theory give s explanations to why poor people commit crime. It demonstrates that the poor dont have the means they need to achieve their goals (Cote, 2002, p.125-130).There is however criticisms of this theory this theory does not explain why there is white collar crime. It overlooks the issue that rich people who have the means to achieve their goals still commit crime (Lotz, 2005, p.127-131).In conclusion the Chicago school theories made significant contributions to the study of criminology. The modern structural theories changed our thinking from the idea that crime was caused by individual biological/genetic factors, to the idea that crime was a result of social factors. The Chicago schools social structural theories suggest that crime is a result of external social and cultural factors. Robert Park and Ernest Burgess ecological theory, made a contribution as it demostrated how exteral social factors can influence crime. Shaw and McKay made contributions to criminology by explaining how the ase external social factors had an impact on criminal behaviour. Their social disorgniztional theory demonstrates the link between external factors (social disorganization) and crime. Their disorganizational theory demostrates what happens if there is a break down of social control in society. They suggest that this beack down leads to disorganization. However this theory does not explain the pressure social control has on individuals. This was the focus of Mertons strain theory Merton was interested in the pressure society put on individuals. Mertons strain theory higlights effects the social forces have on determin crime. The Chicago School also contributed by adopting an interactionists form of inquiry as demostrated in Edwin Sutherlands diffrential associaition theory. This form of inquiry was inspired by the work of simmel and is unique in comparission to the positivist tradittion. The interactionist approach made significant contributions to the way we understand the underlyin g reasons behind criminal behaviour. This perspective is not intrested in conclusion the cause of crime but is aim. The Chicago school contributed by using ethnography, this allowed researchers to get in-depth detailed accounts of the social phenomena they were observing. Ethnographic methods are still used today as they are considered a vital way to gain detailed primary information. Every Chicago school theory has contributed to the way we study criminology some theories may be more relevant than others but all the theories have raised important issues.BibliographyBeccaria, Cesare (1764) On Crimes and Punishments. Translated from the Italian by Richard Davies and Virginia Cox. In On Crimes and Punishments and Other Writings, edited by Richard Bellamy. Cambridge Cambridge University oppose, 1995.Bentham, Jeremy (1789) An introduction to the Principles of moral philosophy and Legislation. 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